CHAPTER 8 - FOOD PROCUREMENT
After water, man's most urgent requirement is food. In
contemplating virtually any hypothetical survival situation, the
mind immediately turns to thoughts of food. Unless the situation
occurs in an arid environment, even water, which is more important
to maintaining body functions, will almost always follow food in
our initial thoughts. The survivor must remember that the three
essentials of survival--water, food, and shelter--are prioritized
according to the estimate of the actual situation. This estimate
must not only be timely but accurate as well. Some situations may
well dictate that shelter precede both food and water.
ANIMALS FOR FOOD
Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate your efforts on the
smaller animals, due to their abundance. The smaller animal species
are also easier to prepare. You must not know all the animal species
that are suitable as food. Relatively few are poisonous, and they
make a smaller list to remember. What is important is to learn the
habits and behavioral patterns of classes of animals. For example,
animals that are excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit
a particular range and occupy a den or nest, those that have somewhat
fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading from one area
to another. Larger, herding animals, such as elk or caribou, roam
vast areas and are somewhat more difficult to trap. Also, you must
understand the food choices of a particular species.
You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that crawls,
swims, walks, or flies. The first obstacle is overcoming your natural
aversion to a particular food source. Historically, people in starvation
situations have resorted to eating everything imaginable for nourishment.
A person who ignores an otherwise healthy food source due to a personal
bias, or because he feels it is unappetizing, is risking his own
survival. Although it may prove difficult at first, a survivor must
eat what is available to maintain his health.
Insects
The most abundant life-form on earth, insects are easily caught.
Insects provide 65 to 80 percent protein compared to 20 percent
for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if not overly appetizing,
food source. Insects to avoid include all adults that sting or bite,
hairy or brightly colored insects, and caterpillars and insects
that have a pungent odor. Also avoid spiders and common disease
carriers such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes.
Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for
a variety of insects including ants, termites, beetles, and grubs,
which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook insect nests on or in the
ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to search because
the insects are easily seen. Stones, boards, or other materials
lying on the ground provide the insects with good nesting sites.
Check these sites. Insect larvae are also edible. Insects such as
beetles and grasshoppers that have a hard outer shell will have
parasites. Cook them before eating. Remove any wings and barbed
legs also. You can eat most insects raw. The taste varies from one
species to another. Wood grubs are bland, while some species of
ants store honey in their bodies, giving them a sweet taste. You
can grind a collection of insects into a paste. You can mix them
with edible vegetation. You can cook them to improve their taste.
Worms
Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for
them in damp humus soil or watch for them on the ground after a
rain. After capturing them, drop them into clean, potable water
for a few minutes. The worms will naturally purge or wash themselves
out, after which you can eat them raw.
Crustaceans
Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter up to 2.5
centimeters. They can form rather large colonies in mats of floating
algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and lakes.
Crayfish are akin to marine lobsters and crabs. You can distinguish
them by their hard exoskeleton and five pairs of legs, the front
pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are active at night, but
you can locate them in the daytime by looking under and around stones
in streams. You can also find them by looking in the soft mud near
the chimneylike breathing holes of their nests. You can catch crayfish
by tying bits of offal or internal organs to a string. When the
crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to shore before it has a chance
to release the bait.
You find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the surf's
edge out to water 10 meters deep. Shrimp may come to a light at
night where you can scoop them up with a net. You can catch lobsters
and crabs with a baited trap or a baited hook. Crabs will come to
bait placed at the edge of the surf, where you can trap or net them.
Lobsters and crabs are nocturnal and caught best at night.
Mollusks
This class includes octopuses and freshwater and saltwater shellfish
such as snails, clams, mussels, bivalves, barnacles, periwinkles,
chitons, and sea urchins (Figure 8-1). You
find bivalves similar to our freshwater mussel and terrestrial and
aquatic snails worldwide under all water conditions.
River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in rivers,
streams, and lakes of northern coniferous forests. These snails
may be pencil point or globular in shape.
In fresh water, look for mollusks in the shallows, especially in
water with a sandy or muddy bottom. Look for the narrow trails they
leave in the mud or for the dark elliptical slit of their open valves.
Near the sea, look in the tidal pools and the wet sand. Rocks along
beaches or extending as reefs into deeper water often bear clinging
shellfish. Snails and limpets cling to rocks and seaweed from the
low water mark upward. Large snails, called chitons, adhere tightly
to rocks above the surf line.
Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock pools, on logs, or at the base
of boulders.
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CAUTION
Mussels may be poisonous in tropical zones during the
summer!
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Steam, boil, or bake mollusks in the shell. They make excellent stews in combination
with greens and tubers.
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CAUTION
Do not eat shellfish that are not covered by water at
high tide!
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Fish
Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer some
distinct advantages to the survivor or evader. They are usually
more abundant than mammal wildlife, and the ways to get them are
silent. To be successful at catching fish, you must know their habits.
For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a storm. Fish are
not likely to feed after a storm when the water is muddy and swollen.
Light often attracts fish at night. When there is a heavy current,
fish will rest in places where there is an eddy, such as near rocks.
Fish will also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging
brush, and in and around submerged foliage, logs, or other objects
that offer them shelter.
There are no poisonous freshwater fish. However, the catfish species
has sharp, needlelike protrusions on its dorsal fins and barbels.
These can inflict painful puncture wounds that quickly become infected.
Cook all freshwater fish to kill parasites. Also cook saltwater
fish caught within a reef or within the influence of a freshwater
source as a precaution. Any marine life obtained farther out in
the sea will not contain parasites because of the saltwater environment.
You can eat these raw.
Certain saltwater species of fish have poisonous flesh. In some
species the poison occurs seasonally in others, it is permanent.
Examples of poisonous saltwater fish are the porcupine fish, triggerfish,
cowfish, thorn fish, oilfish, red snapper, jack, and puffer (Figure
8-2). The barracuda, while not actually poisonous itself, may
transmit ciguatera (fish poisoning) if eaten raw.
Amphibians
Frogs and salamanders are easily found around bodies of fresh water.
Frogs seldom move from the safety of the water's edge. At the first
sign of danger, they plunge into the water and bury themselves in
the mud and debris. There are few poisonous species of frogs. Avoid
any brightly colored frog or one that has a distinct "X"
mark on it's back. Do not confuse toads with frogs. You normally
find toads in drier environments. Several species of toads secrete
a poisonous substance through their skin as a defense against attack.
Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads.
Salamanders are nocturnal. The best time to catch them is at night
using a light. They can range in size from a few centimeters to
well over 60 centimeters in length. Look in water around rocks and
mud banks for salamanders.
Reptiles
Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to catch.
You should cook them, but in an emergency, you can eat them raw.
Their raw flesh may transmit parasites, but because reptiles are
cold-blooded, they do not carry the blood diseases of the warm-blooded
animals.
The box turtle is a commonly encountered turtle that you should
not eat. It feeds on poisonous mushrooms and may build up a highly
toxic poison in its flesh. Cooking does not destroy this toxin.
Avoid the hawksbill turtle, found in the Atlantic Ocean, because
of its poisonous thorax gland. Poisonous snakes, alligators, crocodiles,
and large sea turtles present obvious hazards to the survivor.
Birds
All species of birds are edible, although the flavor will vary
considerably. You may skin fish-eating birds to improve their taste.
As with any wild animal, you must understand birds' common habits
to have a realistic chance of capturing them. You can take pigeons,
as well as some other species, from their roost at night by hand.
During the nesting season, some species will not leave the nest
even when approached. Knowing where and when the birds nest makes
catching them easier (Figure 8-3). Birds tend
to have regular flyways going from the roost to a feeding area,
to water, and so forth. Careful observation should reveal where
these flyways are and indicate good areas for catching birds in
nets stretched across the flyways (Figure 8-4).
Roosting sites and waterholes are some of the most promising areas
for trapping or snaring.
Nesting birds present another food source--eggs. Remove all but
two or three eggs from the clutch, marking the ones that you leave.
The bird will continue to lay more eggs to fill the clutch. Continue
removing the fresh eggs, leaving the ones you marked.
Mammals
Mammals are excellent protein sources and, for Americans, the most
tasty food source. There are some drawbacks to obtaining mammals.
In a hostile environment, the enemy may detect any traps or snares
placed on land. The amount of injury an animal can inflict is in
direct proportion to its size. All mammals have teeth and nearly
all will bite in self-defense. Even a squirrel can inflict a serious
wound and any bite presents a serious risk of infection. Also, a
mother can be extremely aggressive in defense of her young. Any
animal with no route of escape will fight when cornered.
All mammals are edible; however, the polar bear and bearded seal
have toxic levels of vitamin A in their livers. The platypus, native
to Australia and Tasmania, is an egg-laying, semiaquatic mammal
that has poisonous glands. Scavenging mammals, such as the opossum,
may carry diseases.
TRAPS AND SNARES
For an unarmed survivor or evader, or when the
sound of a rifle shot could be a problem, trapping or snaring wild
game is a good alternative. Several well-placed traps have the potential
to catch much more game than a man with a rifle is likely to shoot.
To be effective with any type of trap or snare, you must--
- Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch.
- Be capable of constructing a proper trap.
- Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence.
There are no catchall traps you can set for all animals. You must
determine what species are in a given area and set your traps specifically
with those animals in mind. Look for the following:
- Runs and trails.
- Tracks.
- Droppings.
- Chewed or rubbed vegetation.
- Nesting or roosting sites.
- Feeding and watering areas.
Position your traps and snares where there is proof that animals
pass through. You must determine if it is a "run" or a
"trail." A trail will show signs of use by several species
and will be rather distinct. A run is usually smaller and less distinct
and will only contain signs of one species. You may construct a
perfect snare, but it will not catch anything if haphazardly placed
in the woods. Animals have bedding areas, waterholes, and feeding
areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place snares
and traps around these areas to be effective.
For an evader in a hostile environment, trap and snare concealment
is important. It is equally important, however, not to create a
disturbance that will alarm the animal and cause it to avoid the
trap. Therefore, if you must dig, remove all fresh dirt from the
area. Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type trap.
Prepare the various parts of a trap or snare away from the site,
carry them in, and set them up. Such actions make it easier to avoid
disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey. Do not
use freshly cut, live vegetation to construct a trap or snare. Freshly
cut vegetation will "bleed" sap that has an odor the prey
will be able to smell. It is an alarm signal to the animal.
You must remove or mask the human scent on and around the trap
you set. Although birds do not have a developed sense of smell,
nearly all mammals depend on smell even more than on sight. Even
the slightest human scent on a trap will alarm the prey and cause
it to avoid the area. Actually removing the scent from a trap is
difficult but masking it is relatively easy. Use the fluid from
the gall and urine bladders of previous kills. Do not use human
urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of rotting vegetation,
is also good. Use it to coat your hands when handling the trap and
to coat the trap when setting it. In nearly all parts of the world,
animals know the smell of burned vegetation and smoke. It is only
when a fire is actually burning that they become alarmed. Therefore,
smoking the trap parts is an effective means to mask your scent.
If one of the above techniques is not practical,
and if time permits, allow a trap to weather for a few days and
then set it. Do not handle a trap while it is weathering. When you
position the trap, camouflage it as naturally as possible to prevent
detection by the enemy and to avoid alarming the prey.
Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use channelization.
To build a channel, construct a funnel-shaped barrier extending
from the sides of the trail toward the trap, with the narrowest
part nearest the trap. Channelization should be inconspicuous to
avoid alerting the prey. As the animal gets to the trap, it cannot
turn left or right and continues into the trap. Few wild animals
will back up, preferring to face the direction of travel. Channelization
does not have to be an impassable barrier. You only have to make
it inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier.
For best effect, the channelization should reduce the trail's width
to just slightly wider than the targeted animal's body. Maintain
this constriction at least as far back from the trap as the animal's
body length, then begin the widening toward the mouth of the funnel.
Use of Bait
Baiting a trap or snare increases your chances of catching an animal.
When catching fish, you must bait nearly all the devices. Success
with an unbaited trap depends on its placement in a good location.
A baited trap can actually draw animals to it. The bait should be
something the animal knows. This bait, however, should not be so
readily available in the immediate area that the animal can get
it close by. For example, baiting a trap with corn in the middle
of a corn field would not be likely to work. Likewise, if corn is
not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap may arouse an animal's
curiosity and keep it alerted while it ponders the strange food.
Under such circumstances it may not go for the bait. One bait that
works well on small mammals is the peanut butter from a meal, ready-to-eat
(MRE) ration. Salt is also a good bait. When using such baits, scatter
bits of it around the trap to give the prey a chance to sample it
and develop a craving for it. The animal will then overcome some
of its caution before it gets to the trap.
If you set and bait a trap for one species but another species
takes the bait without being caught, try to determine what the animal
was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, using the same bait.
Note: Once you have successfully trapped an animal, you will not
only gain confidence in your ability, you also will have resupplied
yourself with bait for several more traps.
Trap and Snare Construction
Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle
the prey. A single trap or snare will commonly incorporate two or
more of these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to the
trap are almost always very simple. The struggling victim, the force
of gravity, or a bent sapling's tension provides the power.
The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a
trap or snare, ask yourself how it should affect the prey, what
is the source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger.
Your answers will help you devise a specific trap for a specific
species. Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill.
Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish either function.
Simple Snare
A simple snare (Figure 8-5) consists of a
noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly planted
stake. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a
game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments
from spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make sure
the noose is large enough to pass freely over the animal's head.
As the animal continues to move, the noose tightens around its neck.
The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This
type of snare usually does not kill the animal. If you use cordage,
it may loosen enough to slip off the animal's neck. Wire is therefore
the best choice for a simple snare.
Drag Noose
Use a drag noose on an animal run (Figure 8-6).
Place forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a sturdy crossmember
across them. Tie the noose to the crossmember and hang it at a height
above the animal's head. (Nooses designed to catch by the head should
never be low enough for the prey to step into with a foot.) As the
noose tightens around the animal's neck, the animal pulls the crossmember
from the forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding vegetation
quickly catches the crossmember and the animal becomes entangled.
Twitch-Up
A twitch-up is a supple sapling, which, when bent over and secured
with a triggering device, will provide power to a variety of snares.
Select a hardwood sapling along the trail. A twitch-up will work
much faster and with more force if you remove all the branches and
foliage.
Twitch-Up Snare
A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with a long
and short leg (Figure 8-7). Bend the twitch-up
and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick
firmly into the ground at that point. Ensure the cut on the short
leg of this stick is parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg of
the remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured to the
twitch-up. Cut the short leg so that it catches on the short leg
of the other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the
trap by bending the twitch-up and engaging the short legs of the
forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in the noose, it
pulls the forked sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring
up and hang the prey.
Note: Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The
sap that oozes out could glue them together.
Squirrel Pole
A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an area
showing a lot of squirrel activity (Figure 8-8).
Place several wire nooses along the top and sides of the pole so
that a squirrel trying to go up or down the pole will have to pass
through one or more of them. Position the nooses (5 to 6 centimeters
in diameter) about 2.5 centimeters off the pole. Place the top and
bottom wire nooses 45 centimeters from the top and bottom of the
pole to prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface.
If this happens, the squirrel will chew through the wire. Squirrels
are naturally curious. After an initial period of caution, they
will try to go up or down the pole and will get caught in a noose.
The struggling animal will soon fall from the pole and strangle.
Other squirrels will soon follow and, in this way, you can catch
several squirrels. You can emplace multiple poles to increase the
catch.
Ojibwa Bird Pole
An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare used by native Americans for centuries
(Figure 8-9). To be effective, place it in
a relatively open area away from tall trees. For best results, pick
a spot near feeding areas, dusting areas, or watering holes. Cut
a pole 1.8 to 2.1 meters long and trim away all limbs and foliage.
Do not use resinous wood such as pine. Sharpen the upper end to
a point, then drill a small diameter hole 5 to 7.5 centimeters down
from the top. Cut a small stick 10 to 15 centimeters long and shape
one end so that it will almost fit into the hole. This is the perch.
Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed end up. Tie a
small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted species,
to a length of cordage. Pass the free end of the cordage through
the hole, and tie a slip noose that covers the perch. Tie a single
overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against the hole.
Allow the cordage to slip through the hole until the overhand knot
rests against the pole and the top of the perch. The tension of
the overhand knot against the pole and perch will hold the perch
in position. Spread the noose over the perch, ensuring it covers
the perch and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer to rest
on something above ground and will land on the perch. As soon as
the bird lands, the perch will fall, releasing the over-hand knot
and allowing the weight to drop. The noose will tighten around the
bird's feet, capturing it. If the weight is too heavy, it will cut
the bird's feet off, allowing it to escape.
Noosing Wand
A noose stick or "noosing wand" is useful for capturing
roosting birds or small mammals (Figure 8-10).
It requires a patient operator. This wand is more a weapon than
a trap. It consists of a pole (as long as you can effectively handle)
with a slip noose of wire or stiff cordage at the small end. To
catch an animal, you slip the noose over the neck of a roosting
bird and pull it tight. You can also place it over a den hole and
hide in a nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you
jerk the pole to tighten the noose and thus capture the animal.
Carry a stout club to kill the prey.
Treadle Spring Snare
Use a treadle snare against small game on a trail (Figure
8-11). Dig a shallow hole in the trail. Then drive a forked
stick (fork down) into the ground on each side of the hole on the
same side of the trail. Select two fairly straight sticks that span
the two forks. Position these two sticks so that their ends engage
the forks. Place several sticks over the hole in the trail by positioning
one end over the lower horizontal stick and the other on the ground
on the other side of the hole. Cover the hole with enough sticks
so that the prey must step on at least one of them to set off the
snare. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to a twitch-up or to a
weight suspended over a tree limb. Bend the twitch-up or raise the
suspended weight to determine where You will tie a 5 centimeter
or so long trigger. Form a noose with the other end of the cordage.
Route and spread the noose over the top of the sticks over the hole.
Place the trigger stick against the horizontal sticks and route
the cordage behind the sticks so that the tension of the power source
will hold it in place. Adjust the bottom horizontal stick so that
it will barely hold against the trigger. A the animal places its
foot on a stick across the hole, the bottom horizontal stick moves
down, releasing the trigger and allowing the noose to catch the
animal by the foot. Because of the disturbance on the trail, an
animal will be wary. You must therefore use channelization.
Figure 4 Deadfall
The figure 4 is a trigger used to drop a weight onto a prey and
crush it (Figure 8-12). The type of weight
used may vary, but it should be heavy enough to kill or incapacitate
the prey immediately. Construct the figure 4 using three notched
sticks. These notches hold the sticks together in a figure 4 pattern
when under tension. Practice making this trigger before-hand; it
requires close tolerances and precise angles in its construction.
Paiute Deadfall
The Paiute deadfall is similar to the figure 4 but uses a piece
of cordage and a catch stick (Figure 8-13).
It has the advantage of being easier to set than the figure 4. Tie
one end of a piece of cordage to the lower end of the diagonal stick.
Tie the other end of the cordage to another stick about 5 centimeters
long. This 5-centimeter stick is the catch stick. Bring the cord
halfway around the vertical stick with the catch stick at a 90-degree
angle. Place the bait stick with one end against the drop weight,
or a peg driven into the ground, and the other against the catch
stick. When a prey disturbs the bait stick, it falls free, releasing
the catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight falls,
crushing the prey.
Bow Trap
A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps. It is dangerous to man
as well as animals (Figure 8-14). To construct
this trap, build a bow and anchor it to the ground with pegs. Adjust
the aiming point as you anchor the bow. Lash a toggle stick to the
trigger stick. Two upright sticks driven into the ground hold the
trigger stick in place at a point where the toggle stick will engage
the pulled bow string. Place a catch stick between the toggle stick
and a stake driven into the ground. Tie a trip wire or cordage to
the catch stick and route it around stakes and across the game trail
where you tie it off (as in Figure 8-14).
When the prey trips the trip wire, the bow looses an arrow into
it. A notch in the bow serves to help aim the arrow.
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WARNING
This is a lethal
trap. Approach it with caution and from the rear only!
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Pig Spear Shaft
To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about 2.5
meters long (Figure 8-15). At the smaller
end, firmly lash several small stakes. Lash the large end tightly
to a tree along the game trail. Tie a length of cordage to another
tree across the trail. Tie a sturdy, smooth stick to the other end
of the cord. From the first tree, tie a trip wire or cord low to
the ground, stretch it across the trail, and tie it to a catch stick.
Make a slip ring from vines or other suitable material. Encircle
the trip wire and the smooth stick with the slip ring. Emplace one
end of another smooth stick within the slip ring and its other end
against the second tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear shaft
across the trail and position it between the short cord and the
smooth stick. As the animal trips the trip wire, the catch stick
pulls the slip ring off the smooth sticks, releasing the spear shaft
that springs across the trail and impales the prey against the tree.
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WARNING
This is a lethal
trap. Approach it with caution!
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Bottle Trap
A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and voles (Figure
8-16). Dig a hole 30 to 45 centimeters deep that is wider at
the bottom than at the top. Make the top of the hole as small as
possible. Place a piece of bark or wood over the hole with small
stones under it to hold it up 2.5 to 5 centimeters off the ground.
Mice or moles will hide under the cover to escape danger and fall
into the hole. They cannot climb out because of the wall's backward
slope. Use caution when checking this trap; it is an excellent hiding
place for snakes.
KILLING DEVICES
There are several killing devices that you can construct to help
you obtain small game to help you survive. The rabbit stick, the
spear, the bow and arrow, and the sling are such devices.
Rabbit Stick
One of the simplest and most effective killing devices is a stout
stick as long as your arm, from fingertip to shoulder, called a
"rabbit stick." You can throw it either overhand or sidearm
and with considerable force. It is very effective against small
game that stops and freezes as a defense.
Spear
You can make a spear to kill small game and to fish. Jab with the
spear, do not throw it. See spearfishing
below.
Bow and Arrow
A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You can construct
a suitable short-term bow fairly easily. When it loses its spring
or breaks, you can replace it. Select a hardwood stick about one
meter long that is free of knots or limbs. Carefully scrape the
large end down until it has the same pull as the small end. Careful
examination will show the natural curve of the stick. Always scrape
from the side that faces you, or the bow will break the first time
you pull it. Dead, dry wood is preferable to green wood. To increase
the pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to front, forming
an "X" when viewed from the side. Attach the tips of the
bows with cordage and only use a bowstring on one bow.
Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available. The arrows
should be about half as long as the bow. Scrape each shaft smooth
all around. You will probably have to straighten the shaft. You
can bend an arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot coals.
Do not allow the shaft to scorch or bum. Hold the shaft straight
until it cools.
You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or pieces of rock.
You can also sharpen and fire harden the end of the shaft. To fire
harden wood, hold it over hot coals, being careful not to bum or
scorch the wood.
You must notch the ends of the arrows for the bowstring. Cut or
file the notch; do not split it. Fletching (adding feathers to the
notched end of an arrow) improves the arrow's flight characteristics,
but is not necessary on a field-expedient arrow.
Sling
You can make a sling by tying two pieces of cordage, about sixty
centimeters long, at opposite ends of a palm-sized piece of leather
or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap one cord around the
middle finger and hold in your palm. Hold the other cord between
the forefinger and thumb. To throw the rock, spin the sling several
times in a circle and release the cord between the thumb and forefinger.
Practice to gain proficiency. The sling is very effective against
small game.
FISHING DEVICES
You can make your own fishhooks, nets and traps and use several
methods to obtain fish in a survival situation.
Improvised Fishhooks
You can make field-expedient fishhooks from pins, needles, wire,
small nails, or any piece of metal. You can also use wood, bone,
coconut shell, thorns, flint, seashell, or tortoise shell. You can
also make fishhooks from any combination of these items (Figure
8-17).
To make a wooden hook, cut a piece of hardwood about 2.5 centimeters
long and about 6 millimeters in diameter to form the shank. Cut
a notch in one end in which to place the point. Place the point
(piece of bone, wire, nail) in the notch. Hold the point in the
notch and tie securely so that it does not move out of position.
This is a fairly large hook. To make smaller hooks, use smaller
material.
A gorge is a small shaft of wood, bone, metal, or other material.
It is sharp on both ends and notched in the middle where you tie
cordage. Bait the gorge by placing a piece of bait on it lengthwise.
When the fish swallows the bait, it also swallows the gorge.
Stakeout
A stakeout is a fishing device you can use in a hostile environment
(Figure 8-18). To construct a stakeout, drive
two supple saplings into the bottom of the lake, pond, or stream
with their tops just below the water surface. Tie a cord between
them and slightly below the surface. Tie two short cords with hooks
or gorges to this cord, ensuring that they cannot wrap around the
poles or each other. They should also not slip along the long cord.
Bait the hooks or gorges.
Gill Net
If a gill net is not available, you can make one using parachute
suspension line or similar material (Figure 8-19).
Remove the core lines from the suspension line and tie the easing
between two trees. Attach several core lines to the easing by doubling
them over and tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches. The
length of the desired net and the size of the mesh determine the
number of core lines used and the space between them. Starting at
one end of the easing, tie the second and the third core lines together
using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and
seventh, and so on, until you reach the last core line. You should
now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line hanging
at each end. Start the second row with the first core line, tie
it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on.
To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie
a guideline to the trees. Position the guideline on the opposite
side of the net you are working on. Move the guideline down after
completing each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and you
always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an adjoining pair.
Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width. Thread a
suspension line easing along the bottom of the net to strengthen
it. Use the gill net as shown in Figure 8-20.
Fish Traps
You may trap fish using several methods (Figure
8-21). Fish baskets are one method. You construct them by lashing
several sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. You close
the top, leaving a hole large enough for the fish to swim through.
You can also use traps to catch saltwater fish, as schools regularly
approach the shore with the incoming tide and often move parallel
to the shore. Pick a location at high tide and build the trap at
low tide. On rocky shores, use natural rock pools. On coral islands,
use natural pools on the surface of reefs by blocking the openings
as the tide recedes. On sandy shores, use sandbars and the ditches
they enclose. Build the trap as a low stone wall extending outward
into the water and forming an angle with the shore.
Spearfishing
If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where the fish
are large and plentiful, you can spear them. To make a spear, cut
a long, straight sapling (Figure 8-22). Sharpen
the end to a point or attach a knife, jagged piece of bone, or sharpened
metal. You can also make a spear by splitting the shaft a few inches
down from the end and inserting a piece of wood to act as a spreader.
You then sharpen the two separated halves to points. To spear fish,
find an area where fish either gather or where there is a fish run.
Place the spear point into the water and slowly move it toward the
fish. Then, with a sudden push, impale the fish on the stream bottom.
Do not try to lift the fish with the spear, as it with probably
slip off and you will lose it; hold the spear with one hand and
grab and hold the fish with the other. Do not throw the spear, especially
if the point is a knife. You cannot afford to lose a knife in a
survival situation. Be alert to the problems caused by light refraction
when looking at objects in the water.
Chop Fishing
At night, in an area with a good fish density, you can use a light
to attract fish. Then, armed with a machete or similar weapon, you
can gather fish using the back side of the blade to strike them.
Do not use the sharp side as you will cut them in two pieces and
end up losing some of the fish.
Fish Poison
Another way to catch fish is by using poison. Poison works quickly.
It allows you to remain concealed while it takes effect. It also
enables you to catch several fish at one time. When using fish poison,
be sure to gather all of the affected fish, because many dead fish
floating downstream could arouse suspicion. Some plants that grow
in warm regions of the world contain rotenone, a substance that
stuns or kills cold-blooded animals but does not harm persons who
eat the animals. The best place to use rotenone, or rotenone-producing
plants, is in ponds or the headwaiters of small streams containing
fish. Rotenone works quickly on fish in water 21 degrees C (70 degrees
F) or above. The fish rise helplessly to the surface. It works slowly
in water 10 to 21 degrees C (50 to 70 degrees F) and is ineffective
in water below 10 degrees C (50 degrees F). The following plants,
used as indicated, will stun or kill fish:
- Anamirta cocculus(Figure 8-23).
This woody vine grows in southern Asia and on islands of the South
Pacific. Crush the bean-shaped seeds and throw them in the water.
- Croton tiglium(Figure 8-23). This
shrub or small tree grows in waste areas on islands of the South
Pacific. It bears seeds in three angled capsules. Crush the seeds
and throw them into the water.
- Barringtonia(Figure 8-23). These
large trees grow near the sea in Malaya and parts of Polynesia.
They bear a fleshy one-seeded fruit. Crush the seeds and bark
and throw into the water.
- Derris eliptica(Figure 8-23).
This large genus of tropical shrubs and woody vines is the main
source of commercially produced rotenone. Grind the roots into
a powder and mix with water. Throw a large quantity of the mixture
into the water.
- Duboisia(Figure 8-23). This shrub
grows in Australia and bears white clusters of flowers and berrylike
fruit. Crush the plants and throw them into the water.
- Tephrosia(Figure 8-23). This species
of small shrubs, which bears beanlike pods, grows throughout the
tropics. Crush or bruise bundles of leaves and stems and throw
them into the water.
- Lime.You can get lime from commercial sources and in
agricultural areas that use large quantities of it. You may produce
your own by burning coral or seashells. Throw the lime into the
water.
- Nut husks.Crush green husks from butternuts or black
walnuts. Throw the husks into the water.
PREPARATION OF
FISH AND GAME FOR
COOKING AND STORAGE
You must know how to prepare fish and game for cooking and storage
in a survival situation. Improper cleaning or storage can result
in inedible fish or game.
Fish
Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not ensure that
spoiled fish will be edible. Signs of spoilage are--
- Sunken eyes.
- Peculiar odor.
- Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales should
be a pronounced shade of gray, not faded.)
- Dents stay in the fish's flesh after pressing it with your thumb.
- Slimy, rather than moist or wet body.
- Sharp or peppery taste.
Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause diarrhea, nausea, cramps,
vomiting, itching, paralysis, or a metallic taste in the mouth.
These symptoms appear suddenly, one to six hours after eating. Induce
vomiting if symptoms appear.
Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a hot day. Prepare
fish for eating as soon as possible after catching it. Cut out the
gills and large blood vessels that lie near the spine. Gut fish
that is more than 10 centimeters long. Scale or skin the fish.
You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an open
fire. However, boiling the fish with the skin on is the best way
to get the most food value. The fats and oil are under the skin
and, by boiling, you can save the juices for broth. You can use
any of the methods used to cook plant food to cook fish. Pack fish
into a ball of clay and bury it in the coals of a fire until the
clay hardens. Break open the clay ball to get to the cooked fish.
Fish is done when the meat flakes off. If you plan to keep the fish
for later, smoke or fry it. To prepare fish for smoking, cut off
the head and remove the backbone.
Snakes
To skin a snake, first cut off its head and bury it. Then cut the
skin down the body 15 to 20 centimeters (Figure
8-24). Peel the skin back, then grasp the skin in one hand and
the body in the other and pull apart. On large, bulky snakes it
may be necessary to slit the belly skin. Cook snakes in the same
manner as small game. Remove the entrails and discard. Cut the snake
into small sections and boil or roast it.
Birds
After killing the bird, remove its feathers by either plucking
or skinning. Remember, skinning removes some of the food value.
Open up the body cavity and remove its entrails, saving the craw
(in seed-eating birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet. Cook
by boiling or roasting over a spit. Before cooking scavenger birds,
boil them at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.
Skinning and Butchering Game
Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean the
carcass near a stream. Place the carcass belly up and split the
hide from throat to tail, cutting around all sexual organs (Figure
8-25). Remove the musk glands at points A and B to avoid tainting
the meat. For smaller mammals, cut the hide around the body and
insert two fingers under the hide on both sides of the cut and pull
both pieces off (Figure 8-26).
Note: When cutting the hide, insert the knife
blade under the skin and turn the blade up so that only the hide gets cut.
This will also prevent cutting hair and getting it on the meat.
Remove the entrails from smaller game by splitting the body open
and pulling them out with the fingers. Do not forget the chest cavity.
For larger game, cut the gullet away from the diaphragm. Roll the
entrails out of the body. Cut around the anus, then reach into the
lower abdominal cavity, grasp the lower intestine, and pull to remove.
Remove the urine bladder by pinching it off and cutting it below
the fingers. If you spill urine on the meat, wash it to avoid tainting
the meat. Save the heart and liver. Cut these open and inspect for
signs of worms or other parasites. Also inspect the liver's color;
it could indicate a diseased animal. The liver's surface should
be smooth and wet and its color deep red or purple. If the liver
appears diseased, discard it. However, a diseased liver does not
indicate you cannot eat the muscle tissue.
Cut along each leg from above the foot to the previously made body
cut. Remove the hide by pulling it away from the carcass, cutting
the connective tissue where necessary. Cut off the head and feet.
Cut larger game into manageable pieces. First, slice the muscle
tissue connecting the front legs to the body. There are no bones
or joints connecting the front legs to the body on four-legged animals.
Cut the hindquarters off where they join the body. You must cut
around a large bone at the top of the leg and cut to the ball and
socket hip joint. Cut the ligaments around the joint and bend it
back to separate it. Remove the large muscles (the tenderloin) that
lie on either side of the spine. Separate the ribs from the backbone.
There is less work and less wear on your knife if you break the
ribs first, then cut through the breaks.
Cook large meat pieces over a spit or boil them. You can stew or
boil smaller pieces, particularly those that remain attached to
bone after the initial butchering, as soup or broth. You can cook
body organs such as the heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys
using the same methods as for muscle meat. You can also cook and
eat the brain. Cut the tongue out, skin it, boil it until tender,
and eat it.
Smoking Meat
To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure around a fire (Figure
8-27). Two ponchos snapped together will work. The fire does
not need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce smoke, not heat.
Do not use resinous wood in the fire because its smoke will ruin
the meat. Use hardwoods to produce good smoke. The wood should be
somewhat green. If it is too dry, soak it. Cut the meat into thin
slices, no more than 6 centimeters thick, and drape them over a
framework. Make sure none of the meat touches another piece. Keep
the poncho enclosure around the meat to hold the smoke and keep
a close watch on the fire. Do not let the fire get too hot. Meat
smoked overnight in this manner will last about 1 week. Two days
of continuous smoking will preserve the meat for 2 to 4 weeks. Properly
smoked meat will look like a dark, curled, brittle stick and you
can eat it without further cooking. You can also use a pit to smoke
meat (Figure 8-28).
Drying Meat
To preserve meat by drying, cut it into 6-millimeter strips with
the grain. Hang the meat strips on a rack in a sunny location with
good air flow. Keep the strips out of the reach of animals and cover
them to keep blowflies off. Allow the meat to dry thoroughly before
eating. Properly dried meat will have a dry, crisp texture and will
not feel cool to the touch.
Other Preservation Methods
You can also preserve meats using the freezing or brine and salt
methods.
Freezing
In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat indefinitely. Freezing
is not a means of preparing meat. You must still cook it before
eating.
Brine and Salt
You can preserve meat by soaking it thoroughly in a saltwater solution. The
solution must cover the meat. You can also use salt by itself. Wash
off the salt before cooking.
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